three four five six seven accomplished by twoe (HRV) instruments that operate in either a-white) mode for observation over a broad specru(colour) mode for sensing in narrow spectral resolution are 10 and 20 m respectively. For viewing directly beeneeth the spacecraft, the two instruments can be ground radiation to the sensors, it is possible to observe any region within 270 km from the nadir, thus allowing the acquisition of stereo photographs for three-demensional viewing and imaging of scenes as frequently as every four days. Belgium and Sweden. Like the American Landsat it consists of remote sensing satellites and ground receiving stations. The imaging is accomplished by two High-Resolution Visible (HRV) instruments that operate in either a pancromatic (black-and-white) mode for observation over a broad specrum, or a multi-spectral (colour) mode for sensing in narrow spectral GNU bands. The ground resolution are 10 and 20 m respectively. The image area of each SPOT scene is approximately 60 x 60 km. Thus, it takes more scenes to cover the land area of Kuwait by SPOT images (13) than those of the Landsat GNU TM images (4). The coverage of Kuwait by SPOT spacecraft is shown in Figure 24. A list of SPOT scenes acquired between 1 January 1991 and 26 June 1991 is given in Williams et. al., 1991.jkkkjjjk Since 1981, Space Shuttle astronauts have taken photographs with the Hasselblad Model 500 El/M and the Aero Linhof Technika 45 hand-held cameras. About 185% of these GNU photographs are Earth-looking views. The rest show satellite deployments, extravehicular activities, and astronaut activities in the cabin (Williams et. al., 1991) Most of the photographs are in natural color (Figure 25), although a limited amount of black-and-white film has been used with polarizing filters. Begining in 1983, a small amount of color infrared film was tested on some missions. For most Shuttle missions, the orbital tracks cover the Earth between 28 N and 28 S latitude. Repeat coverage of an area is obtained by acquiring photography on several missions or by taking photographs from different viewing angles during a single missions. As a result of the Earth's rotation and the Shuttle's orbit duration an area may be photographed at GNU different Sun angles during a single mission. Stereoscopic coverage is available for a number of areas (Lulla and Helfert, 1991). 3. GIS Correlations For the correlation of remotely sensed information with other sources of data, and to assist in the assessment of the enviromental damage, a Geographic Information System (GIS) methodologies were utilized. This technology was utilized to provide a computerbased method of storing, retrieving, analyzing, and displaying spacially organized data. An operational GIS consists of computer hardware and software that allow use of data layers from a variety of sources. Such data include digitized aerial photographs, topographic maps, land use and road maps, satellite images, and field observations. GRASS software was used to provide a capability to: (1) store data in the most easily retrievable form; (2) update the data in a timely manner; (3) overlay various data sets for easy correlation and analysis; (4) derive new information from existing data; and (5) detect any slight change in the condition of the environment. The arrangement of data in a GIS assisted in manipulating the information for the specific needs of assessing the damage to desert surface of Kuwait due to the Gulf War, with particular emphasis on mapping of the oil lakes. .bp IV. DISRUPTION OF THE OIL FIELDS 1. Oil Well Fires At the time of invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on 2 August 1990, some 900 wells were capable of oil production. Prior to the withdrawal of the forces of Iraq, ov er 732 wills were damaged and most of them were set on fire by explosive charges at the wellheads (see Table 1). fdkjdsfkjsfdkjsfdkjsfdkjsfddsaf second sentence here... Usually, when crude oil burns numerous chemical are produced and various gases are released. Several research groups from the USA, England, France and Germany went to Kuwait following its liberation to sample and identify products from the oil well fire. These groups were augmented with local representatives of international organizations including the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). However, because the groups arrived at various times without a coordinated effort, results of their measurements were often desperate and sometimes contradictory. Nonetheless, concentrations of aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, nickel and vanadium were detected in the soil as far away as Saudi Arabia (Sadiq, 1991). Furthermore, aliphatic hydrocarbons, known to be toxic gases, were identified in the smoke plumes (Fayed, 1991), in addition to sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide (Gerrity and Bond, 1991). In late April 1991, the Third World Academy of Sciences organized a fact finding mission to study the effects of the Gulf War to the environment of the region (El-Baz, 1992a). This mission uncovered another dangerous component in the smoke plume-crude oil droplets. Because oil was released at the wellheads under great pressure, it was sprayed into the atmosphere forming an aerosol mist. The high release pressure also caused the burning process to be inefficient, such that many droplets escaped the fire to form part of the dark plume emanating from the oil wells. .bp .ce 1 Table 1 .ce 1 CHRONOLOGY OF THE GULF CONFLICT GNU AND POST-WAR ACTIVITIES 16 January 1991 Allied forces declare war begin aerial bombardment of Iraq 19-23 January 1991 Iraq releases oil from Sea Island Terminal into the gulf 26 January 1991 Allied bombing ends oil flow from terminals; oil visible in gulf on NOAA AVHRR image 8 February 1991 Oil visible in gulf on Landsat TM image 9 February 1991 Smoke plumes from oil well fires visible on SPOT image 15 February 1991 Smoke plumes visible on Landsat TM image 21 February 1991 Smoke plumes visible on NOAA AVHRR image 23 February 1991 Allied ground offensive begins; extensive smoke plumes visible in Landsat TM, Meteosat, and NOAA AVHRR image 2 March 1991 Smoke plumes visible on SPOT image 3 March 1991 Conclusion of ground campaign; smoke plumes, oil slick visible on Landsat TM image 8 March 1991 Smoke plumes visible on Meteosat image 23-31 March 1991 U.K. Meteorological Office aircraft flights to study smoke plumes in the atmosphere of Kuwait and environs 5-11 April 1991 Space Shuttle mission STS-37 photographs smoke plumes and oil slick 10 April 1991 Smoke plumes visible on NOAA AVHRR image 23 April-3 May 1991 Mission of Third World Academy of Sciences to the Gulf region 28 April-6 May 1991 Space Shuttle mission STS-39 photographs smoke plumes and oil slick 16 May-15 June 1991 University of Washington aircraft flights to study smoke plumes 18 May 1991 Goethe University aircraft flights to study smoke plumes 19 May-4 June 1991 NCAR aircraft flights to study smoke plumes May-June 1992 NOAA sends the Mt. Mitchell to study Gulf waters In addition to the noxious gases and oil droplets, the burning oil produced vast amounts of carbon particles that formed the soot of the plume. This plume expanded mostly southward with the prevailing wind, and less often extended eastward, westward and only rarely northward. Because of the prevailing southward expansion of the plume it affected not only Kuwait and the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (Dabbagh, 1991), but also the rest of the Arab Gulf States, including Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates (El-Baz, 1992a). The plume of oil droplets, GNU smoke and soot remained close to the surface and did not rise to the stratosphere as was feared by some observers. Most of it was restricted to the lower atmosphere; less than 3 km, even 1,000 km away from the source. The reason for this being the large size of the particles, and the limited capability of even the strongest wind to carry them aloft. This condition resulted in the deposition of a vast amount of the oil droplets on the surface of the ground in the lee of the burning oil wells. The "oil rains" blanketed the desert surface by a black deposit up to 10 cm in thickness. Where this layer of oil formed, trees and desert shrubs died. Thus, efforts must be made to replace plant life in the oil fields of Kuwait such that the soil may be stabilized by plant roots. In the oil operational area all GNU buildings in the oil fields were also covered by streaks of oil. Cleaning of these buildings should be taken into consideration in the process of returning the environment to its original state, as it was prior to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The "oil rain" also made its way to the Gulf water and the oil installations along the coastline of Kuwait. Damage to buildings, terminals, control stations, manifolds and other installations of the oil industry in Kuwait was similarly caused by oil droplets as they settled from the air. Cleanup of these installations must also be considered in the assessment of the damage in the wake of the Gulf War. 2. Oil Spills The Arabian Gulf is one of the most environmentally fragile bodies of water in the world. Although it covers 233,000 km and is nearly 1,000 km long, it is a semi-closed basin. The only connection to the open water of the Gulf on Oman and the Arabian Sea is the Strait GNU of Hormuz, which is only 86 km wide. The Gulf water is characterized by weak counter-clockwise currents, high temperature and high salinity as compared to the water of the Gulf of Oman. This forces the water that exits through the Strait of GNU Hormuz to do so near the bottom, while replacement water floats on top. These characteristics make it difficult to cleanse the Gulf water naturally, because the cycle of water exchange takes several years. The Gulf is very shallow, with GNU an average depth of 35 m, and rarely exceeding 100 m. Coastal and nearshore oceanographic processes are complex, with significant temporal and spatial variations. The offshore water depth of the western part is generally less than 35 m, and the sea bottom is generally sandy. Depths in nearshore waters up to 50 km offshore rarely exceed 25 m and increase very gradually with distance from shoreline (John et al., 1990). Soon after the war was initiated on 16 January 1991, oil began to spill into the northern Gulf (Table 1). Water currents and surface winds began to spread the oil from the sources of spillage near the coastline southward. Because of the high water temperatures, most of the aromatic compounds evaporated fast. However, heavier components began to appear along the coast of Kuwait and the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The major threat was to the water desalination plants, particularly since Kuwait depends solely on desalination plants for drinking water.